David G. Wiencek, president of the international security group, examines how the war on terrorism has changed us military tactics.
The staggering terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 on the World Trade Center towers in New York and the Pentagon building in Washington D.C. estimated to have killed over 3,000 people had a Pearl Harbor-like impact on the United States. They sparked the adoption of unprecedented security measures at home and propelled the country into a global assault against terrorist groups, their hosts and financial patrons. The subsequent attacks by as yet unidentified perpetrators using anthrax-tainted letters delivered through the US mail system brought the threat of weapons of mass destruction into sharp focus and created daunting new challenges for homeland defence. The new war on terrorism is reframing US defence and national security policy.
Operation Enduring Freedom The US launched Operation Enduring Freedom 26 days after the events of 11 September. The primary aim of the ongoing operation was to destroy Osama Bin Laden’s Afghanistan-based al-Qaida terrorist network which, masterminded the attacks. The operation also sought to rid Afghanistan of the radical Taliban religious group that harboured Bin Laden and wrought havoc on Afghan society with its harsh policies.
Prior to 7 October, the US had begun massing its forces in the region, establishing access points in Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. It positioned elements of the 10th Mountain Division in Uzbekistan and inserted special forces teams in and around Afghanistan. In the naval arena, the US assembled four carrier groups and two marine expeditionary units (MEUs) in the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf region. These forces were supplemented by HMS Illustrious and her battle group previously deployed to Oman for an established set of exercises and the largest overseas deployment since the Falklands.
The initial attacks in Afghanistan involved US carrier-based aviation and heavy bombers flown from Diego Garcia. The US also flew B-2 Spirit bombers on missions directly from Whiteman Air Force Base in Missouri. Upwards of 65 Tomahawk land-attack cruise missiles were used in the opening days of the campaign. The targets for the initial attacks included Taliban held airfields, terrorist training camps, command and control nodes and anti-aircraft positions. British forces, engaged under Operation Veritas, fired a handful of submarine-launched Tomahawk missiles and RAF aircraft flew operational sorties on refuelling, reconnaissance and surveillance missions.
The effort allowed the US to establish air superiority quickly. Continued US bombing softened Taliban forces and put them on the defensive. This paved the way for Afghan resistance elements, primarily the battle hardened Northern Alliance, to retake control of almost all of Afghanistan (they had previously controlled only about 10 per cent of the country). By December, Taliban and al-Qaida forces were on the brink of surrender. However, pockets of resistance still persist and Bin Laden himself remains at large. The developments led to an increased presence on the ground with the deployment of a US Marine task force. With around 2,000 personnel, it established an initial forward operating base south of Kandahar.
Key aspects of Enduring Freedom
There are a number of important aspects to the Afghan operation:
• Key role of special forces. The operation involved the largest deployment of US Special Forces since the Persian Gulf War. Special Forces teams on the ground, with their language and extensive cultural knowledge were able to work closely with Afghan resistance elements. These forces played a key role in reconnaissance, target spotting for air strikes and direct action missions. Psychological operators were also in action including the EC-130 Commando Solo aircraft which, conducted special broadcasts in local languages. Leaflets were disseminated, to encourage the local population to turn against the terrorists and the Taliban. Special forces from the UK (SAS and SBS) and Australia (SAS Regiment) have also been conducting missions in Afghanistan. New Zealand and Turkey also committed small teams to the operation.
• Expanded covert operations. The United States granted new authority to the CIA to carry out paramilitary covert actions in Afghanistan. CIA personnel operated in close conjunction with Special Forces and the Afghan resistance. Indeed, a CIA officer killed near Mazar-e-Sharif was the war’s first combat casualty.
It was also reported the CIA was operating new General Atomics RQ-1A Predator UAVs equipped with Lockheed Martin AGM-114 Hellfire anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs). These allow a quick-response attack capability to real-time battlefield intelligence. Outside the theatre of military operations, the CIA had the authority to pursue a full-court press against terrorist organisations operating around the world. US authorities have continually referred to actions taking place ‘out of view’ as a major component of US policy in the war on terrorism.
• Requirement for heavy weapons. The Afghan conflict highlighted the need for munitions that could be used against hard and deeply buried targets. Taliban and al-Qaida members operated from bunkers and tunnels and the terrorists later retreated to highly concealed cave complexes in the mountains of eastern Afghanistan. The US used a range of bombs with penetrating capabilities to attack such targets, including the massive BLU-82 15,000-lb. bomb popularly known as the ‘daisy cutter’, its Vietnam-era moniker.
• Utility of rapid response forces. The introduction of a large force of US Marines in November 2001 highlighted the value of light, mobile forces with good manoeuvring capability and also the right amount of firepower to sustain themselves in a complex conflict involving guerrilla warfare and unconventional threats.
• Need for maritime interdiction capability. The conflict also witnessed the creation of a large force of allied naval vessels acting to seal off seaborne escape routes the terrorists may have attempted to utilise. The force monitored commercial vessels and searched suspicious ships. P3-C Orion surveillance aircraft were also involved in the interdiction mission.
The US brought the full measure of its power (overt and covert) to bear in Enduring Freedom. It prosecuted the war with strict attention to collateral damage by using precision guided munitions capable of highly accurate targeting. As in other recent actions, it employed a host of standoff weapons to minimise the threat to its own aviators and other troops.
However, shocked by the viciousness of the events of 11 September, Washington was unified in its will to deploy a wide array of forces on the ground to ensure the achievement of its war aims. This was an important departure from past actions, and one the terrorists did not count on.
Homeland defence
The terrorist attacks led to an unprecedented focus on homeland defence. In the days following the attacks, the US froze all commercial aviation for the first time in its history. Since then there has been an intense effort to improve airport passenger screening and airline security measures that many in Europe and elsewhere have lived with for years. Air marshals were also deployed in greater numbers on certain domestic and international flights.
The subsequent anthrax attacks invoked more panic on the home front, and it is not yet clear if they were linked to the events of 11 September. The attacks killed four and infected 13 others, prompting a mass public education effort in the area of biological weapons (BW) threats and responses.
In particular, the anthrax attacks highlighted shortcomings in BW detection and remediation strategies. Adding to public concerns were numerous reports that Bin Laden may have had access to a radiological weapon (a dirty nuke) and may wish to employ such a weapon against a population centre.
To handle such threats more effectively and co-ordinate national activities, President Bush created a new White House Office of Homeland Security. At the same time, the US military also considered creating a new regional commander-in-chief (CINC) for the US led by a four-star commander to take control of homeland defence missions.
Changes to national security policy
The events of 11 September ushered in many changes for the United States. All indications pointed to an anti-terrorism campaign lasting many years and conducted in many locales. Iraq, Somalia and Sudan have been considered potential secondary targets once the operation in Afghanistan is successfully completed. Bin Laden linked groups in the southern Philippines and Indonesia may also face US overt or covert action.
Military and intelligence budgets are sure to expand in coming years. The war has highlighted the range of tools required to fight terrorism, including in the areas of law enforcement, tracking of financial assets, tighter border control and immigration laws. The war also emphasised the need for adaptable forward basing arrangements.
It has not only shown the value of investing in a full panoply of high-tech weapons but also proven the US is capable of its own version of asymmetric warfare. Nonetheless, it has reinforced the often overlooked need for basic on-the-ground knowledge in the growing importance of intelligence assets that can penetrate small terrorist cells and military forces that can operate in complex cultural environments like Afghanistan.
