The UK’s first Astute-class SSN is to enter service in 2005
				Global submarines
	by Dr Lee Willett, Centre for Security Studies, University of Hull
				The 1990s have seen evidence of trends among all navies to purchase sub-surface warfighting capabilities. As nations seek to project power to meet littoral, regional and global purposes a submarine-based capability, with its autonomous flexibility and stealth, is widely viewed as an effective method of achieving this end. NATO In November 1999, Britain commissioned the last of its four Vanguard-class Trident nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs), the HMS Vengeance. In March 1999, in operation Allied Force in Kosovo, the nuclear-powered fast attack submarine (SSN) HMS Splendid became the first British platform to fire a Tomahawk (TLAM) in combat. More recently, HMS Triumph has been fitted with TLAM, and next year HMS Trafalgar will test-fire a TLAM with the new submarine control system (SMCS). The government and the Royal Navy remain committed to a submarine-based TLAM capability, and are examining options with the US for fitting the tactical Tomahawk (TacTom) for torpedo-tube launch. Under Britain’s strategic defence review (SDR) the government made a commitment to introduce into the fleet five new Astute-class SSNs, the first of which will enter service in 2005. Canada’s navy is proceeding with the purchase of the four British Upholder-class conventional submarines (SSKs). To be fitted with air independent propulsion (AIP) and scheduled for under-ice operations, the first of these submarines, HMCS Victoria, will join the Canadian Fleet in April 2000. The Canadian navy also has held discussions with the US Navy over a possible TLAM purchase. Denmark continues to modernise its two Narhvalen-class SSKs, and continues to operate its Tumleren-class Type 207 SSKs, while placing an order for a new conventional class in late 1999 in a collaborative programme with Sweden and Norway. France, by 2006, will have de-commissioned the last two of its L’Inflexible-class SSBNs. When the first of the two, the Le Tonnant, is withdrawn in 2000 France will have only three SSBNs until the third of the Le Triomphant-class, the Le Vigilant, is commissioned in 2003. The four-boat programme is expected to be completed by 2008. France will equip these boats with the M-51 SLBM, that is under development. Its conventional submarine programme continues to be a strong source of foreign military sales. Its own operational SSK programme is drawing to a close: the Ouessant is to be withdrawn, while the La Praya is to become a test platform for a new SSN programme. This SSN programme, Project Barracuda, will bring in a vertical-launched land-attack capability. Germany is procuring four Type 212 SSKs, the hull of the first was laid down in November 1999. All will be commissioned between 2003 and 2006. Greece is actively pursuing a modern submarine programme. In October 1998, the government announced its decision to procure up to four Type 214 SSKs. Its eight Glavkos-class SSKs remain operational. The Italian submarine force has been strengthened by mid-life modernisation to its Sauro-class, and by a decision to licence-build between two and four German Type 212 SSKs. The Netherlands is seeking to bolster its Walrus-class SSK fleet with a new, AIP-capable Moray-class. There also are rumours of Dutch interest in a TLAM capability. Norway is developing a combined submarine programme, the Viking, with Denmark and Sweden. A design for the Viking was expected this year, buying German Type 212s is an alternative. Poland retains its three operational SSKs (two Foxtrots and one Kilo). Portugal has three operational Albacore SSKs, but a replacement class is likely. Spain wants three AIP-capable Scorpene SSKs. Turkey’s submarine programme continues to develop, with the purchase of up to eight Preveze-class SSKs, all with torpedo tube-launched surface-to-surface missiles. US Navy Los Angeles-class attack boat. The US Navy has completed its current major submarine programmes, the Ohio-class Trident ship submersible ballistic nuclear (SSBN) submarines and the Los Angeles-class fast attack ship submersible nuclear (SSN) boat. The last of the three of its Seawolf-class SSNs, the USS Jimmy Carter, is scheduled for launch in June 2000 and the follow-on will be the Virginia-class. The life of the Trident hulls is now extended to 2040, so there is discussion of applying a modular concept to the Virginia class, whereby different capabilities – including nuclear ballistic missiles (SLBMs) – can be fitted. The US is considering converting the first four Ohios to carry 154 TLAMs and special forces units. European non-NATO Bulgaria’s one operational submarine, a Romeo-class SS, is working under operational restrictions because of the paucity of the navy’s maintenance programme. The Croatian navy is building the second of its Una-class midget submarines. Romania retains one operational Kilo-class, but there are questions as to whether its scheduled re-fit will be funded. Questions continue about the viability of the Russian submarine force, despite emphases in doctrine suggesting that submarine-based capabilities are vital to Russian global geo-strategic influence. Juxtaposed against the re-invigoration of the Delta IV SSBN strategic deterrent programme and developments in the SSN field (such as hull sound-quieting) is the fact that construction of the new Borrey-class SSBN virtually has ceased, along with abandoning its SS-NX-28 SLBM programme following three failed test-firings, and the Typhoon-class SSBNs being withdrawn from service. Slow work on the Severodvinsk/Yasen-class threatens its future despite an improved version being under design. Yet the fleet of Akulas, Sierras and Victor IIIs provides a highly effective SSN force. Other Russian SSKs, notably the two Lada-class SSKs that were launched in 1999, have been fitted for an AIP capability. Sweden is the most able exponent of AIP technology, with the Gotland-class SSKs able to spend weeks below the surface without snorting, when at speeds of five knots. Of the four SSKs the Ukraine received from the former Soviet Black Sea fleet, the one remaining operational unit is currently in refit. The Yugoslav Federation of Serbia and Montenegro has three patrol submarines in its fleet. Of these, only one remains operational. Africa Algeria continues to operate two Russian-built Kilo-class SSKs. Of the four Libyan Foxtrot-class SSKs, only one is operational and its deployments constitute only limited exercises on the surface. The South African government has nominated a German consortium to build a new fleet. Middle east Iran’s fleet of Kilo-class SSKs has been active in the Persian Gulf now technical difficulties have been overcome. Iran’s three midget submarines remain operational. Israel’s long-awaited deployment of three German-built Type 800 SSKs is almost complete. The sale of the older Gal-class to Ecuador has been jeopardised by the delay in the Type 800 procurement. Saudi Arabia has continued training its forces in France and Pakistan for possible submarine operations, although procurement remains a low priority. Central Asia Under the advanced technology vessel (ATV) programme, India is developing its own nuclear-powered submarine capability. This programme has been given the highest political priority as India seeks to cement its nuclear power status. The PWR reactor developed from this well-funded programme already has been shore-tested, and the first platform (an SSN similar to the Russian Severodvinsk and VLS-capable) is expected to be launched in 2007. It has been reported that this platform also may be SLBM and cruise missile-capable. There are also reports of India developing an SSBN of its own. The Indian SSK programme continues to expand, amid reports of the procurement of an Amur-class SSK from Russia and the development of the new SSK Project 75 programme. The strength of the Indian programme is underscored by the continued operational status of the Shishumar and Sindhughosh (Kilo) classes and plans for extending the service life of the Foxtrot-class Type 641s, although recent reports suggest this latter development may not be sanctioned. Pakistan is set to supplement its existing fleet of French-built Agosta-class SSKs with a further, licence-built batch called the Khalid-class. The first of these new boats was built in France and became operational in April 1999. The last two will be built in Pakistan. These boats are intended to be AIP-capable, operational by 2002 and will replace the Hangor-class SSKs. Asia-Pacific rim The Collins-class submarines of the Royal Australian Navy continue to have a difficult technological history, complicating the desire for a platform programme around which to base a prospective TLAM fleet. Australia is considering follow-on options, including Swedish-designed and built Type 471. The last of the RAN’s Oberon-class SSKs, HMAS Otama, was decommissioned in December. China’s Xia-class Type 092 SSBN is now operational following a lengthy re-fit. Beijing is also planning to build the first of four Type 094 SSBNs. However, problems with the development of its JL-2 SLBM system may slow progress. The JL-2 programme is using a former Soviet Golf-class SSB conventionally powered ballistic missile submarines as its trials platform. Beijing has procured its fourth Kilo from Moscow, although two of the platforms have been experiencing problems. Yet Beijing is continuing to develop its SSN programme with the new Type 093. The launch is expected in 2002, with an in-service date of 2004. Two of its Han-class SSNs remain operational, although the extended re-fits to other hulls of this class has delayed the development of the Type 093s. Indonesia took delivery of two of a planned five German Type 206 SSKs in 1997. However, in June 1998 the project was cancelled, leaving Indonesia with two Cakra-class Type 209s. Japan has produced new submarines with metronomic regularity since 1981. Its Oyashio-class SSKs began deployment in March 1998, with the programme expected to be complete by March 2003. The Harushio and Yuushio classes are in full deployment. This new submarine may be a candidate for a TLAM fit. North and South Korea continue to maintain midget and semi-submersible craft programmes. North Korea’s emphasis continues to be on midget submarines to support attempted incursions in the south. Pyongyang also exported some midget submarines to Vietnam in 1997. No effort appears to have been made to upgrade its Romeo-class conventional boats. South Korea has, since 1993, been deploying the Chang Bogo-class Type 209. Since 1990, Malaysia has held plans for deploying a submarine fleet. Currently, funding is unavailable and the programme remains limited to training. Singapore has re-launched its programme with the re-fit of the first of its four Sjoormen-class SSKs. Taiwan continues to endeavour to purchase more submarines, with plans for six patrol submarines and the development of a torpedo tube-launched surface-to-surface missile for its Hai Lung-class SSKs. Vietnam has purchased two Yugo-class midget submarines from North Korea that are torpedo-capable, but are used mostly for swimmer/diver delivery. Latin America Argentina’s two Santa Cruz-class type TR1700 SSKs are due for a re-fit, while one Salta-class type 1200 SSKs is operational. Brazil maintains two submarine classes: the Tikuna-class is an intermediary between the Humaita class SSKs and Brazil’s first SSN. Chile is purchasing two Scorpene-class SSKs from DCN in France to complement its two Thomson type 209s and two Oberons. Colombia’s two Pijao type 1200/209 SSKs are in need of a re-fit. Ecuador is still awaiting three Gal-class SSKs from Israel, although its two Type 209-class boats remain operational. Peru is maintaining an operational submarine force of four Casma-class SSKs, while a further two are in reserve with two older Abtao boats used for training. Venezuela maintains a two-boat active SSK fleet with its Sabalo-class. ©
		Trafalgar-class attack submarine